Battle of Monmouth in the American Revolution

Clash of Monmouth in the American Revolution The Battle of Monmouth was battled on June 28, 1778, during the American Revolution (1775 to 1783). Significant General Charles Leeâ commanded 12,000 men of the Continental Army under the initiative of General George Washington. For the British, General Sir Henry Clintonâ commanded 11,000 men under the authority of Lieutenant General Lord Charles Cornwallis. The climate was incredibly hot during the battle,â and nearly the same number of troopers kicked the bucket from heatstroke as from fight. Foundation With the French section into the American Revolution in February 1778, British methodology in America started to move as the war turned out to be progressively worldwide in nature. Therefore, the recently selected officer of the British Army in America, General Sir Henry Clinton, got requests to dispatch some portion of his powers toward the West Indies and Florida. Despite the fact that the British had caught the renegade capital of Philadelphia in 1777, Clinton, prospective short on men, chose to relinquish the city the accompanying spring to concentrate on ensuring his base at New York City. Evaluating the circumstance, he initially needed to pull back his military via ocean, however a lack of transports constrained him to design a walk north. On June 18, 1778, Clinton started emptying the city, with his soldiers crossing Delaware at Coopers Ferry. Moving upper east, Clinton at first planned to walk overland to New York, yet later picked to move toward Sandy Hook and take pontoo ns to the city. Washingtons Plan While the British initiated arranging their takeoff from Philadelphia, General George Washingtons armed force was still at its winter quarters camp at Valley Forge, where it had been vigorously penetrated and prepared by Baron von Steuben. Learning of Clintons expectations, Washington tried to connect with the British before they could arrive at the wellbeing of New York. While huge numbers of Washingtons officials supported this forceful methodology, Major General Charles Lee exhaustingly questioned. An as of late discharged POW and a foe of Washingtons, Lee contended that the French partnership implied triumph over the long haul and that it was silly to submit the military to fight except if they had overpowering prevalence over the adversary. Gauging the contentions, Washington chose for seek after Clinton. In New Jersey, Clintons walk was moving gradually because of a broad stuff train. Showing up at Hopewell, NJ, on June 23, Washington held a chamber of war. Lee indeed contended against a significant assault, and this time figured out how to influence his administrator. Energized to some degree by proposals made by Brigadier General Anthony Wayne, Washington chose rather to send a power of 4,000 men to hassle Clintons rearguard. Because of his position in the military, Lee was offered order of this power by Washington. Lacking trust in the arrangement, Lee declined this offer and it was given to the Marquis de Lafayette. Later in the day, Washington amplified the power to 5,000. After hearing this, Lee adjusted his perspective and requested that he be provided order, which he got with severe requests that he was to hold a gathering of his officials to decide the arrangement of assault. Dregs Attack and Retreat On June 28, Washington got word from the New Jersey state army that the British were progressing. Coordinating Lee forward, he educated him to strike the flank of the British as they walked up Middletown Road. This would end the foe and permit Washington to raise the principle body of the military. Lee obeyed Washingtons before request and held a gathering with his commandants. Instead of formulating an arrangement, he advised them to be alert for orders during the fight. Around 8 p.m. on June 28, Lees section experienced the British back gatekeeper under Lieutenant General Lord Charles Cornwallis only north of Monmouth Court House. Instead of dispatch an organized assault, Lee submitted his soldiers piecemeal and immediately lost control of the circumstance. Following a couple of long stretches of battling, the British moved to flank Lees line. Seeing this development, Lee arranged a general retreat up the Freehold Meeting House-Monmouth Court House Road in the wake of offering litt le opposition. Washington to the Rescue While Lees power was drawing in Cornwallis, Washington was raising the primary armed force. Riding forward, he experienced the escaping fighters from Lees order. Horrified by the circumstance, he found Lee and requested to recognize what had occurred. In the wake of getting no good answer, Washington reproached Lee in one of only a handful barely any cases in which he swore freely. Excusing his subordinate, Washington set to revitalizing Lees men. Requesting Wayne to build up a line north of the street to slow the British development, he attempted to set up a guarded line along a hedgerow. These endeavors held off the British long enough to permit the military to take up positions toward the west, behind the West Ravine. Moving into place, the line saw Major General William Alexanders men on the left and Major General Nathanael Greenes troops to one side. The line was bolstered toward the south by cannons on Combs Hill. Falling back to the principle armed force, the leftovers of Lees powers, presently drove by Lafayette, re-shaped to the back of the new American line with the British in interest. The preparation and control imparted by von Steuben at Valley Forge delivered profits, and the Continental soldiers had the option to battle the British regulars to a stop. Late toward the evening, with the two sides bloodied and exhaustedâ from the mid year heat, the British severed the fight and pulled back toward New York. Washington wished to proceed with the interest, however his men were excessively depleted and Clinton had arrived at the security of Sandy Hook. The Legend of Molly Pitcher While huge numbers of the insights about the inclusion of a Molly Pitcher in the battling at Monmouth have been adorned or are in contest, it appears there was to be sure a lady who carried water to American artillerymen during the fight. This would have been no little accomplishment, as it was frantically required not exclusively to mitigate the mens enduring in the serious warmth yet additionally to clean the weapons during the reloading procedure. In one variant of the story, Molly Pitcher even took over from her better half on a firearm group when he fell, either injured or from heatstroke. It is accepted that Mollys genuine name was Mary Hayes McCauly, in any case, once more, the specific subtleties and degree of her help during the fight is obscure. Consequence Losses for the Battle of Monmouth, as announced by every leader, were 69 executed in fight, 37 dead from heatstroke, 160 injured, and 95 missing for the Continental Army. English setbacks included 65 slaughtered in fight, 59 dead from heatstroke, 170 injured, 50 caught, and 14 missing. In the two cases, these numbers are preservationist and misfortunes were almost certain 500 to 600 for Washington and more than 1,100 for Clinton. The fight was the last significant commitment battled in the northern auditorium of the war. From there on, the British stayed in New York and moved their thoughtfulness regarding the southern states. Following the fight, Lee mentioned a court-military to demonstrate that he was guiltless of any bad behavior. Washington obliged and recorded proper charges. A month and a half later, Lee was seen as blameworthy and suspended from the administration.

Look into a Psychotic mind Free Essays

Not for the timid. As a youngster I’d consistently been interested. Beginning when I was six, I would go through hours doing my â€Å"experiments† It started with frogs and worms however soon I went on to greater creatures, warm blooded creatures. We will compose a custom paper test on Investigate a Psychotic brain or then again any comparable point just for you Request Now The family feline, a young men little dog, the school gerbils. The police never realized who took them in spite of the fact that they found the bodies†¦ When I was finished with them. I’m twenty six now and an incredible ordinary city young lady on the off chance that you don’t tally my tests. I work for Poise magazine as a picture taker and low maintenance questioner yet my enthusiasm despite everything lies in the science of a body. Did you realize people can keep on living after the evacuation of the stomach, spleen, 75% of the liver, 80% of the digestion tracts, one kidney, one lung, and basically every organ from the pelvic and crotch zone. You probably won't feel excessively incredible, however the missing organs wouldn’t execute you. I wonder who was fortunate enough to do this trial, I’d love to be them. The specialist or scientist†¦ Not the subject missing his organs. This is the thing that roused my most recent inquiry and prompted the thought for my new â€Å"experiment† I got my subject outside a neighborhood club. It’s calm thin yet at the same time a sound looking packmen, the shaggy earthy colored hair is truly what pulled me to it. Eve consistently adored light earthy colored hair for reasons unknown. Anyway, my example went through the morning in my vehicle trunk while I was grinding away, I ensured he was taken out appropriately. I don’t need my collaborators hearing commotions from my vehicle and investigating†¦ I’d most likely lose my Job. Who am I joking? My Job would be toast. I drove up to my old family house in the nation, having taken the week off I had the opportunity to come around here. Nobody thinks about the old house and it was so distant from anything you could shout your head off without anybody appearing. Ideal for cap I required. I hauled the still oblivious example into the huge carport, his chloroform snooze would be the last harmony he had so he should appreciate it. I’m a moderately little lady so hauling him to the carport wasn’t the most straightforward activity. Why the hell didn’t I park nearer? I murmured to myself. Break time is finished and I have to return to work. I strolled over the dusty floor and gazed at the devices coating my divider. I took a gander at every one and smiled at the harm they could each do. Sledges for crushing, saws for sawing, pincers for pulling, blades for cutting and blowtorches for†¦ Well you get the point. The assortment was enormous and suppressed my interest. I got a length of thick rope from one of the snares and strolled back to where my example lay. My shoes made crashing commotions against the floor however there was no motivation to be quiet†¦ So I wasn’t. Detecting a tough shaft above me, I hurled the rope over it and looked as thick plaited string fell far enough down so I could arrive at it on the off chance that I Jumped. You’d think I’d done this previously. After I ensured I could arrive at the two parts of the bargains I went to my subject. He looked so serene, I don’t think he recalled his kidnapping or comprehended what was to come. My first human example was a cutie, I needed to concede. It’s right around a disgrace, nearly. I maneuvered his oblivious body into spot and wound the rope around his lower legs in the wake of expelling the man’s boots. I ensured my bunches were tight and would not slip fixed as that would destroy the trial. Getting the opposite finish of dangling rope I pulled it behind me and started to stroll towards the column close to the edge of my carport where I could tie off the rope, leaving my example swinging from the rafters like meat in a butcher shop. While trusting that my subject will wakeful I chose to record my advancement in the book I pet with me consistently. It was loaded up with notes on the entirety of my tests, allowed they were all creature tests. Subject: â€Å"Humans† Experiment: Skin is a flimsy layer of tissue going about as an edge around the inward body keeping undesirable germs out. It is additionally the biggest organ in the body and ostensibly the most significant. How significant? In the wake of cleaning subject â€Å"Humans† I would like to respond to that question. Theory: Without the external layer the body ought to surrender to microbes, infections and malady. I am foreseeing that drying out will be my greatest deterrent. I heard a moan dig out from a deficit me and smothered a smile. He’s alert! I dropped the blades I’d carried with me behind him uproariously. The man was presently thrashing around pointlessly. The tiredness from being taken out kept him from succeeding, it was very amusing! At the point when he at long last surrendered, I strolled behind him and gave his hair a fun loving pull, pulling his head back marginally. â€Å"What!? Hold up Who right? Where am I!? † He shouted in rage. The resentment was not out of the ordinary. He thrashed some more until he confronted me and attempted to get a handle on at the edge of my Jeans. I stood Just out of his range, these are fashioner Jeans! â€Å"Why? † I at long last rehashed back at him. Sees you insane obnoxious! What am I doing here!? † He shouted. â€Å"Because I have an inquiry, no requirement for revolting language. † I included pleasantly. â€Å"Huh? Fine. What’s the inquiry? † He huffed. â€Å"Do you recall how you arrived? Not my real issue but rather still should be replied. â€Å"l-l†¦ No. † He looked mindful and I grinned, Just what I needed to hear. I slipped my hand into my pocket and pulled back the needle loaded up with fluid chloroform, getting a charge out of the appearance of frightfulness all over. Before he could shout or flail uncontrollably I slipped it into his neck, farther than should be expected and he cried in torment. The Heimlich before long entered his blood and the battling halted. Cautiously I made the first entry point in quite a while back with a filet blade, being mindful so as not to dive excessively deep as I ran the cutting edge down his back. I pulled up the skin and slid my blade between the skin and his back looking as the outer organ was expelled from his back. I carried out my responsibility peacefully stirring my way up his shoulders and arms. I wasn’t worried about the limited quantities of skin under the ties as it would be scoured crude by the contact of his developments and there was no opportunity to take a shot at such repetitiveness. Next I took a shot at my subject’s chest and middle. When the blood red guide of inside operations was appeared on his top half, or base since he is topsy turvy. A better than average measured puddle of blood had gathered on the stone floor. The thick red fluid ran down his still safe neck and arrived with a streaming thud on the ground. The neck demonstrated a simple part. The fingers and toes gave me some trouble as the skin between the digits was at an ungainly edge and difficult to reach with in the little spaces, I prevailing at long last. Cleaning his â€Å"manhood† was unbearably dreary. The skin covering the sex based organ was at that point so slight, it was almost difficult to dispose of. I’m grateful the part is so little or I may have become upset and slashed the doomed thing off totally. I gave my subject a fix of slaughter, a concoction compound used to help blood coagulating and thicken the blood. I need to perceive to what extent my subject will make due without skin and blood misfortune can't be a factor! His neck and head was such was left. As I ignored his highlights cautiously, I demolished one of the eyes by incidental cutting an eyelid off. Thoughtless yet not a gigantic error, I trust. I polished off evacuating the remainder of the skin from his head. He isn’t adorable any longer, that’s without a doubt. There, great. I thought as I remained back to respect the uncovered muscles and ligaments. The blue of his veins helped me to remember a guide, wandering aimlessly all through his ruddy red structure. New blood overflowed from his body yet not to a degree that would cause the subject’s end, because of the murder . I set a huge mirror before him so when he arose he’d see himself. I need him to value the time I put into his demise. At the point when my subject got up there was a lot of swearing so I disregarded him for a day to quiet down and acknowledge his destiny. Its day 2 of the skinless man and time to take care of him. I can’t let starvation or lack of hydration impact my answer. His passing must be because of loss of skin. He didn’t talk while I took care of him, no swearing or asking. I thought that it was surprising yet I figure he should feel some hopelessness. I’d saw his drying structure and the route the greater part of his body had scabbed over, leaving it looking unpleasant and twisted. I guess that everything I can do now is hold up Day 5. Five and ensure he has enough water. Day 3. The subject is developing more vulnerable, infections beginning to assume control over his skinless structure. Some despondency can be found in his tissue just as a blend of wounds that leak a yellowish puss. The eyelid that I coincidental cut off has presently dried out, it now rerouted from his face marginally. His body is likewise conceding a harsh smell. Like a blend of dried pee and spoiling substance. The bleak draws in a wide range of flies, gnats and mosquitoes. Both benefiting from his rotting tissue and laying eggs in the warm blood. I watch in interest as his substance appears to slither and squirm with the bugs eating up him gradually. It’s energizing, I didn't for see this in my trial. Day 4. The eye without its top flew sooner or later the previous evening, its internal parts turned into an agreeable bed for flies. Rotten, dim greenish purple glop dried in a strip down his face. Sickening. â€Å"Why don’t you Just execute me? The man asked pitifully. L am slaughtering you senseless! It’s Just taking some time longer than anticipated. † I grinned at how guileless he is. â€Å"Why? † He sobbed. â€Å"l let you know, I’m inquisitive. † Then I thought of something, â€Å"What’s your name? † â€Å"Connors, My name is Con no

Overview of Partial Classes in Visual Basic .NET

Review of Partial Classes in Visual Basic .NET Halfway Classes are an element of VB.NET that is utilized all over the place, however theres very little expounded on it. This may be on the grounds that there are not a great deal of clear engineer applications for it yet. The essential use is standing out ASP.NET and VB.NET arrangements are made in Visual Studio where its one of those highlights that is typically covered up. An incomplete class is essentially a class definition that is part into more than one physical document. Fractional classes dont have any kind of effect to the compiler since all the records that make up a class are essentially converged into a solitary substance for the compiler. Since the classes are simply consolidated and incorporated, you cannot blend dialects. That is, you cannot have one fractional class in C# and another in VB. You cannot traverse congregations with incomplete classes either. They all must be in a similar get together. This is utilized a great deal by Visual Studio itself, particularly in website pages where it is a key idea in code behind documents. Well perceive how this functions in a Visual Studio, however understanding what changed in Visual Studio 2005 when it was presented is a decent beginning stage. In Visual Studio 2003, the shrouded code for a Windows application was all in an area called a Region checked Windows Form Designer created code. Be that as it may, it was still all there in a similar record and it was anything but difficult to view, and change, the code in the Region. The entirety of the code is accessible to your application in .NET. Be that as it may, since some of it is code that you ought to never play with, it was kept in that shrouded Region. (Areas can at present be utilized for your own code, yet Visual Studio doesnt use them any longer.) In Visual Studio 2005 (Framework 2.0), Microsoft did around something very similar, yet they shrouded the code in a better place: an incomplete class in a different record. You can see this at the base of the delineation beneath: Snap Here to show the illustrationClick the Back catch on your program to return One of the linguistic structure contrasts between Visual Basic and C# right presently is that C# necessitates that every single incomplete class be qualified with the watchword Partial yet VB doesn't. Your principle structure in VB.NET doesnt have any unique qualifiers. Be that as it may, the default class articulation for a vacant Windows application resembles this utilizing C#: open halfway class Form1 : Form Microsofts plan decisions on things like this are intriguing. At the point when Paul Vick, Microsofts VB architect, expounded on this structure decision in his blog Panopticon Central, the discussion about it in the remarks continued for pages and pages. Lets perceive how this functions with genuine code on the following page. On the past page, the idea of halfway classes was clarified. We convert a solitary class into two fractional classes on this page. Heres a model class with one technique and one property in a VB.NET venture Open Class CombinedClass    Private m_Property1 As String    Public Sub New(ByVal Value As String)       m_Property1 Value    End Sub    Public Sub Method1()       MessageBox.Show(m_Property1)    End Sub    Property Property1() As String       Get          Return m_Property1       End Get       Set(ByVal esteem As String)          m_Property1 esteem       End Set    End Property End Class This class can be called (for instance, in the Click occasion code for a Button object) with the code: Diminish ClassInstance As New _    CombinedClass(About Visual Basic Partial Classes) ClassInstance.Method1() We can isolate the properties and techniques for the class into various physical records by adding two new class documents to the venture. Name the principal physical record Partial.methods.vb and name the second one Partial.properties.vb. The physical record names must be extraordinary yet the halfway class names will be the equivalent so Visual Basic can consolidate them when the code is aggregated. It is anything but a punctuation prerequisite, however most developers are following the model in Visual Studio of utilizing specked names for these classes. For instance, Visual Studio utilizes the default name Form1.Designer.vb for the halfway class for a Windows structure. Make sure to include the Partial catchphrase for each class and change the inward class name (not the document name) to a similar name. I utilized the inward class name: PartialClass. The outline underneath shows the entirety of the code for the model and the code in real life. Snap Here to show the illustrationClick the Back catch on your program to return Visual Studio conceals halfway classes, for example, Form1.Designer.vb. On the following page, we figure out how to do that with the fractional classes we just made. The past pages clarify the idea of fractional classes and tell the best way to code them. Be that as it may, Microsoft utilizes one more stunt with the halfway classes produced by Visual Studio. One reason for utilizing them is to isolate application rationale from (UI) code. In a huge venture, these two kinds of code may even be made by various groups. In the event that theyre in various records, they can be made and refreshed with much greater adaptability. In any case, Microsoft goes one more advance and conceals the fractional code in Solution Explorer too. Assume we needed to conceal the strategies and properties fractional classes in this task? Theres a way, however its not clear and Microsoft doesnt reveal to you how. One reason you dont see the utilization of fractional classes suggested by Microsoft is that its not so much upheld very well in Visual Studio yet. To conceal the Partial.methods.vb and Partial.properties.vb classes that we just made, for instance, requires an adjustment in the vbproj record. This is a XML record that isnt even showed in Solution Explorer. You can discover it with Windows Explorer alongside your different records. A vbproj document is appeared in the outline underneath. Snap Here to show the illustrationClick the Back catch on your program to return The way would do this is to include a root class that is totally unfilled (just the Class header and End Class articulation are left) and make both of our halfway classes reliant on it. So include another class named PartialClassRoot.vb and again change the interior name to PartialClass to coordinate the initial two. This time, I have not utilized the Partial catchphrase just to coordinate the manner in which Visual Studio does it. Heres where a little information on XML will come in extremely helpful. Since this record should be refreshed physically, you need to get the XML language structure right. You can alter the document in any ASCII content manager - Notepad works fine and dandy - or in a XML editorial manager. For reasons unknown, you have an incredible one in Visual Studio and that is what is appeared in the representation underneath. In any case, you cannot alter the vbproj document while youre altering the venture its in. So close the undertaking and open just the vbproj document. You should see the document showed in the alter window as appeared in the outline beneath. (Note the Compile components for each class. DependentUpon sub-components must be included precisely as appeared in the representation beneath. This representation was made in VB 2005 however it has been tried in VB 2008 too.) Snap Here to show the illustrationClick the Back catch on your program to return For huge numbers of us, its likely enough to realize that fractional classes are there, to make sure we comprehend what they are when were attempting to find a bug later on. For enormous and complex frameworks improvement, they could be a minor act of God since they can help compose code in manners that would have been unthinkable previously. (You can likewise have halfway structures and incomplete interfaces!) But a few people have inferred that Microsoft concocted them only for inner reasons - to make their code age work better. Creator Paul Kimmel even ventured to such an extreme as to propose that Microsoft really made halfway classes to bring down their expenses by making it simpler to redistribute advancement work far and wide. Possibly. Its the sort of thing they may do.

Geography of Bliss Secrets of the Happiest Places on Earth - 275 Words

Geography of Bliss by Eric Weiner: Secrets of the Happiest Places on Earth (Book Review Sample) Content: NameTutorSubjectDateThe Geography of Bliss by Eric WeinerThe book by Eric Weiner, " The Geography of Bliss: The Secrets of the Happiest Places on Earthà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , is a great book when it comes to things to do with geography. However, this just one aspect of the book since it has a rich outlay of literary features that I am sure anyone would deem necessary for any literary work, whether devoted to geography or not. The book gives a geographical outlay of major features in different countries that people would enjoy seeing. He gives an account all the way from Iceland, Netherlands, Moldova, Bhutan, Qatar, Great Britain, India, Switzerland, Thailand, and the United States of America. Here, he sets the journey to discover what could be the blockers and enhancers of happiness and thus the title of the book, "The Geography of Blissà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . Despite having refuted the fact that happiness is something within us, and something that can be found. He brings out the l ine between the two to depict classically tow situations almost inseparable due to the almost invisible thin line between the external find of happiness and the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"deep sited happinessà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ that people claim to exist within the self. Book SummaryEric Weiner was a foreign NPR correspondent. As such, he was able to experience the most gruesome of all kinds of unhappiness in existence amongst the people of various countries.He could report on bombings bu suicide bombers in Iraq, students committing suicide in Japan, and so much mess all over. Well, a bit unsettled and tired by the happenings, he sought to develop a happiness map. He went about seeking places with people who were purportedly happier as he tried to seek the reason as to why they were happy while other people in other countries were all grumpy. From Switzerland, he realized that the Swiss are hard to come out so Euphoric with joy, and neither would they be so angered. He saw moderation in the way they wo uld strike a balance and keep a happiness balance. He also realized that things in Switzerland had people with a spirit of efficiency and total perfection. Things would go in order, all over he traveled in Switzerland. They voted up to 7 times a year, they loved chocolate and have so many rules such as not flushing the toilet after t10.00 pm and laughing loud but still manage to be happy. He describes the mountainous Bhutan and the happy people despite the bad GDP while he sees the Americans as a happy lot that lose happiness in wonder of what makes them happy. The Qataris despite being a desert have all money. The students get paid while they study, people get free medical schemes, nobody pays fees, bu with all these money, they remain isolated and hidden behind their tribes.Other travels see him at Moldova, a poor and very unhappy nation. He sees it unhappy yet a bit wealthier than some African countries. The US is wealthy but still not ranked the happiest. After all, being the on ly superpower, we would expect that it would be leading to happiness. India treats happiness and sorrow as fate as they term themselves children of destiny, and Britain brushes happiness as an unnecessary import from the United States. ReviewWhile Weiner goes out seeking to find the sources and the reasons for happiness, he encounters things that merely throw some of his beliefs and those of others about happiness off balance as he remains unable to explain what he sought out in the first place. One thing that he manages to use to keep the reader engaged is some factoids that he uses such as the 1.6 on a scale of 10 measure of happiness for the Dominicans in 1962. He also described the countries with highest suicide rates and their levels of happiness bringing about an oxymoronic depiction of happiness in its almost direct proportional relationship to suicide. In a way, these countries tend to have been so far that people may have gotten used to happiness that the smallest setback c auses suicide, while, the on another hand, the unhappy nations look to have gotten used to their grumpy state such that they only would commit suicide at a low rate. While people would expect Weiner to start popping out philosophical treatises as he explains happiness and how philosophers thunk about happiness. We are engulfed in a situation unlike others as we follow through his journeys as he explains the landscapes of Bhutan, the cut out roads in the mountains, the narrow roads, and the shacks built along the roads that just show how the people are poor. Still the unfailing love of the Nationals to their King, and his rules such as ones making the cutting of trees illegal, and so forth. In a way, readers can just understand the views of the author but the lack of many other exposes taking the same way of thinking. His is a geographical outplay, a method no used by anyone before to explain happiness. As he goes about his business, he brings about various natures of people and how some...

What Has Feminism Feminist Criminology - 1901 Words

What has ‘feminism’ contributed to criminology? In this essay it will focus on feminist contribution to criminology. It will cover different aspects such as: early criminology and the female offender, Lombroso and Ferrero’s views, W. I Thomas and Otto Pollak’s views, sociological criminology and the continued invisibility of women, the development of modern feminist criminology as well as the female concept of crime, Carol Smart and feminist criminology, contemporary feminist criminology, understanding women’s involvement in crime and lastly women, prison and punishment. The way feminism relates to criminology shows it has had an impact, this has led to change as well as differences in opinion. Feminism was introduced as a way to focus on destroying the inequalities between men and women. According to the views and opinions on criminal or deviant behaviour in the 1970s is that the relations made lead to further information been discovered in the 1980s and 1990s. Also, different types of feminism were made known such as liberal, socialists, radical and bourgeois. Radical feminists- the aim was to challenge normal values of society and at the end this resulted in the rights been divided between the two genders. According to radicalists they believe that based on whether you are male or female will state how powerful you are in society. Liberal feminists-is all about maintaining their equality and this is judged on the way they act as a person or the choices they choose toShow MoreRelatedFeminism And Criminology871 Words   |  4 Pagesuncover the impact of feminist approaches within criminology. It will demonstrate how these theoretical perspectives have changed our opinion on women as victims, as well as criminals themselves. By exploration of taboo subjects such as the danger of prostitution looking into how it can prove problematic for feminism. In addition to the labelling of domestic violence, whilst uncovering a variety of key theorists and perspectives. Feminism is crucial to the study of criminology as it takes away traditionalRead MoreFeminism : A Feminist Perspective1168 Words   |  5 Pagesgroundbreaking books, and activism has influenced my intellectual journal through feminist theory. Feminism is a contentious topic with matters that pertain to contemporary feminism, including the following: reprodu ctive rights; equal access to education and employment; marriage equality; violence against women; and the sex trade. While these are only a few of the issues faced by feminists, it is evident that feminism has great value in today’s society. My journey with feminism began in high school when aRead MoreDescribe the Basis of Feminist Criminology1013 Words   |  5 PagesThe Basis Of Feminist Criminology Feminist criminology was created out of the realization that criminology from its beginnings focused on the male criminal and the unlawful acts they committed. When in the fact it could be argued female crime was studied as far back as 1800s, female criminal activity, its causes and the effects in which it placed on public opinion were often disregarded. Over the past 20 years, there has been a significantly different approach in how females are being dealt withRead MoreCriminology : A Strange Beast1582 Words   |  7 PagesCriminology is a discipline that has a variety of other disciplines which seek to construct and theorise explanations and possibilities as to why crime occurs in particular places, ways and too and by certain people. Due to differing field areas interlinking Newburn (2013: 6) described criminology as ‘a strange beast’ by coherently joining conflicting disciplines to try and theorise crime. Walklate (2011) suggested the other disciplines are not onl y a wide variety but are also highly thought provokingRead MoreHas Criminology Been Gender Blinded Essay2257 Words   |  10 PagesCriminology has been ‘Gender-blind rather than ‘Gender neutral. Discuss It has been argued that the gaze of criminology has been primarily focused on male offenders, Cain (1989) argues that criminology is in fact incapable of speaking in gender neutral terms (cited in Walklate 2001: 19). A reason for this includes that history has been prepared to offer universal explanations of crime achieved by the study of the male offender. Feminists such as (Naffine 1997: 18) believe that criminology hasRead MoreThe Study Of Criminology Has Long Been Forgotten, And When1723 Words   |  7 PagesThe study of Criminology has long been forgotten, and when the first studies began they focused their attention on men. The criminal world was dominated by men, and to include women in such studies was unusual. Women were considered inferior beings, and when it came to female delinquents they were compared to a monster, just like Lombroso. Traditional criminology considered female delinquency to be considered unusual and improper for women, since it was not according to the role they had to playRead MoreGender and Crime Essay946 Words   |  4 Pagesperiod of high fertility. Of course the definition of what is a woman or a man by no means always straightforward. Since such roles and customs can vary and be modified it follows that masculine and feminine the terms applied to the respective genders are much more flexible than female and male. Feminism has raised many uncomfortable questions for criminologist and has been critical of mainstream criminology for its gender-neutral focus and its exclusion of women. Read MoreCriminology : A Social And Political Movement3263 Words   |  14 PagesFeminist criminology is a social and political movement. It is a theoretical approach which did not rise up until the 19th century and continues to develop within modern criminology. During the 18th century Marxism and functionalism was first introduced within criminology which was the most dominant perspective and a positivist approach to crime. Throughout the 18th century criminological thought was gender biased as most theorists were males studying male crime, therefore creating masculinity criminologyRead MoreImplications of Feminist Criminology for Criminal Justice523 Words   |  2 PagesImplications of Feminist Criminology for Criminal Justice All feminist theorists share a common focus on gender inequality; however feminism can be described as a set of perspectives rather than a single viewpoint (Strider, N.d.). Therefore, challenging gender biasness in the criminal justice system from the feminist perspective can take many forms given the fact that there a lot of sources of gender inequality in the system. For example, the early theories of criminal behavior largely ignored genderRead More Gender Politics in the Criminal Justice System Essay4043 Words   |  17 Pagesrole in understanding who commits what types of crimes, why they do so, who is most often victimized, and how the criminal justice system responds to these victims and offenders. In order to understand the current state of women and the way in which gender relates to crime and criminal justice, it is first necessary to provide a comprehensive analysis of the historical evolution of women in the criminal justice system and the affect that the different waves of feminism have had on policies and practices

College Education Degrees Outweigh Debt - 873 Words

The average college student acquires over $29,000 in educational debt. The debt of American college students has been steadily on the rise. Tuition has been increasing while the average American families’ income has been decreasing. Some students qualify for federal grants; however, the majority of money used to pay for college is debt that has been borrowed from private lenders. Students who qualify for federal grants must still depend on private lenders to fund their education. â€Å"Seven in ten seniors graduated with student loan debt, and a fifth of that debt was owed to private lenders, which often charge higher interest rates.† (CNNMoney) Most students enroll in college to better their lives, provide a more stable environment for their†¦show more content†¦Repayment plans can also be differed while still attending school. According to an article by, Scott Cohn at CNBC, â€Å"There’s a lot of similarities between what’s happening with stude nt loans and the housing crisis. But there is also a key difference; unlike a mortgage, in which a borrower can refinance or -at worst-face foreclosure and bankruptcy, student loans do not go away.† Restructuring or refinancing student loans can prove to be difficult. However, most lenders are willing to work with students and graduates who are in contact with them and attempting to pay down their debts. Many college students are lower income learners, and the increased demand for borrowed funds is being stretched to the breaking point. The current job market is not supplementing the income needed to repay the loans at the rate in which they are being borrowed. The job market for current graduates is the worst in a generation, and with the increase in borrowed money, some fear that the whole educational system is spiraling downward. The creator of this visual argument used a playful cartoon to depict a very serious and controversial subject. Student loans affect a huge majorit y of college graduates. By using the medium of a cartoon, the creator engages his audience by making the argument easily relatable. An argument, when clearly aimed at a particular audience and adhered with humor, has the desired effect of the viewers. By taking a serious topic and adding humor, it makes theShow MoreRelatedAt This Point In America, There Is An Increasingly Intense1194 Words   |  5 Pagesincreasingly intense debate about if education should be a right or a privilege. This decision can be discussed between Americans but for significant impact, the federal and state governments must act. Since Americans value the chance at an education so much, the cost for that said education should not be so expensive that it outweighs the rewards. Students in college now are accruing tens of thousands of dollars in debt. Some may not even earn their degrees. But because opportunity is importantRead MoreThe Issue Of Financial Success982 Words   |  4 Pagesgenerations simply fou nd that success by attending college and obtaining Bachelor’s Degrees or higher (â€Å"Generations†). The action of obtaining a degree was rewarded by employers with a high rate of starting pay in the field they desired, which led to a comfortable financial situation, while also the pursuit of their dream job. Millennials (those born from 1977-1994) are facing a different situation. Financial success in America is often defined as living debt free, with enough money to cover monthly expensesRead MoreWhy so Expensive?922 Words   |  4 PagesWhy So Expensive? College is said to be some of the best years of your life. The parties, the freedom, and the new experience help you find new friends, hopefully a career and yourself, but rising college cost are having young adults stressing instead of enjoying the college experience. Every year less and less states are giving their college’s money and more and more students are asking for financial aid or taking out student loans. The more that college tuition continues to rise the more ofRead MoreThe Goal of College Attendance991 Words   |  4 Pagesby some, that with a college degree a person could have any job and would be very successful. In Colonial America, colleges were mainly founded by the wealthy. The goal of college at this time was to â€Å"produce Christian gentlemen who would inherit their family business† (Thelin). After a â€Å"college boom† so many state colleges were built and some became co-ed, adding â€Å"special† courses for women. The goal of c ollege attendance still was not completion of a bachelor’s degree. College during this time wasRead MoreGraduation Speech Over College Education Essay1686 Words   |  7 PagesOver the years, there has been a great deal of debate over college education and it’s worth to society and the students who is currently contemplating where they should go or not. In addition, the question of cost, and just how expensive college has become over the last decade has come to attention. It is clear that Americans and important figureheads have argued over whether the benefits of attending college outweigh the benefits of just high school diploma or another type of post-secondary schoolingRead MoreBenefits Of College Education940 Words   |  4 Pagesadults and graduates. In today’s modern society, this means that people with college degrees will land jobs that others don’t. Many citizens believe a college education is unnecessary to make a sufficient living. This migh t be true on some occasions, but a college education has a clear impact on your future. College might not be for everyone, but those who complete their education reap the benefits. A four-year college degree results in higher wages, lower chances of unemployment, improved credibilityRead MoreCollege Tuition Or Student Loans1371 Words   |  6 Pagesthings needed like higher education. Graduating from college is essential to finding a successful job, since more jobs are making college degree a requirement, more people are going to college. The problem is the cost of going to college outweighs the earning from the career you obtain. Very little people are able to pay for college out of pocket. In 2014, 42% of undergraduates paid for college out of pocket (Sallie Mae). The result of this is that students seeking higher education are forced to take outRead MoreThe Effects Of Rising Tuition On Students Choice Of Future Career Field1308 Words   |  6 Pageschoice of future career fiel d Christin C Hyslop Ferrum College Fall 2014 The Effects of Rising Tuition Costs on Ferrum Students’ choice of future career field Introduction Do rising tuition costs affect Ferrum College students’ choice of major? Descriptive research will be done to determine if there is a relationship between rising tuition costs and Ferrum College students’ choice in major. A sample set of students attending Ferrum College will be participating in the study. Qualitative researchRead MoreProfit Education Is A Higher Education University982 Words   |  4 PagesFor profit education is a higher education university that is run and operated by private institutions who receives a profit. In the beginning of 2015, Corinthian College, a large for profit incorporation, was closed for lawsuits of fraudulent statistics of placement rates to jobs after graduating. Placement rates are the jobs that students have received through their degrees, and Corinthian Colleges would advertise the amount of graduates that have been hired in their field. The schools publishedRead MoreIs College Worth It?1425 Words   |  6 PagesImportance of a College Degree There is no simple answer to the question â€Å"Is College worth it?† Where some degrees pay for themselves while others simply do not. Many students are contemplating whether or not to take on huge student loans, because they are constantly told that college is the gateway to the middle class and the way to a secure and steady income. So the questions still on the mind is â€Å"Do the benefits of college still outweigh the costs?† I believe that although college brings heavy

Attitudes and values free essay sample

Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate employee values and work-related attitudes in Chinese manufacturing companies in comparison with values and attitudes in Japan, South Korea and Hong Kong. Design/methodology/approach – The paper will investigate employee values at the societal level, attitudes toward the employing organization, work and the determinants of pay. A survey was conducted in two plants in the electronics industry in China, Japan, South Korea and Hong Kong. A standardised questionnaire comprising 39 items was developed by the Denki Ringo research group. Findings – The results of an empirical study in Asian manufacturing companies indicate signi? cant differences, as well as similarities, among values at the societal level and job-related attitudes in China, Japan, South Korea and Hong Kong. It is argued that the differences in work-related attitudes are in? uenced by the respective societies’ historical legacy, and in particular differences in institutional development. Research limitations/implications – In order to draw broader conclusions, it is necessary to explore alternative explanations and conduct further empirical research in other industries. Practical implications – Multinationals interested in developing manufacturing in China could bene? t from information given in this paper about the work-related attitudes of Chinese employees compared to employees in other Asian societies, where they may already have experience. Originality/value – This study contributes to the understanding of factors in? uencing values and work-related attitudes at the societal, organizational, and individual level. Keywords Employee attitudes, Manufacturing industries, China, Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong Paper type Research paper Chinese Management Studies Vol. 2 No. 1, 2008 pp. 32-51 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1750-614X DOI 10. 1108/17506140810866232 Introduction Many multinationals are interested in developing manufacturing in China, but are unfamiliar with conditions within this emerging market (Foo, 2001). As a result of the economic and social reforms, since 1978, China has experienced tremendous economic growth (Yao, 2006). Chinese managers are facing two challenges: one is to focus on organizational ef? ciency; the second is to change competitive strategies (Wang, 2007). Although there has been a signi? cant body of operational management research (Rungtusanatham et al. , 2003), western companies have experienced dif? culties when managing in China (Foo, 2001). A greater understanding of the values and work related attitudes held by local employees may help managers of multinationals in China. Employee attitudes have been considered an indicator of the future success of an organisation (Hurst, 1995). An attitude is the psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or disfavour (Eagly and Chaiken, 1993). People’s attitudes result in them acting in one certain way instead of another (Cooper and Croyle, 1984). Values in? uence attitudes and the strength of those attitudes (Boninger et al. , 1995). Values exist and are communicated through social connections and may vary in different cultures and different countries (Fisher and Lovell, 2003). According to Hofstede (1993), national culture affects management of organizations. Previous studies indicate the importance of the developmental stage of state institutions in the formation of attitudes (Alas, 2006; Alas and Edwards, 2007; Alas and ? Vadi, 2006; Ennulo and Turnpuu, 2001). The longitudinal survey of work-related values in different countries on the basis of China, Europe and the USA found differences in value hierarchies in people according to the stability of institutions at the time they started their careers (Alas et al. , 2006; Alas and Ennulo, 2007; Alas and Sun, n. d. ). In order to ? nd more suitable ways to motivate and lead Chinese employees, a better understanding of their values and attitudes is required. The companies operating or planning operations in China may already have experiences in Asia: in South Korea, or Hong Kong. As there is a signi? cant body of research in Japan, Hong Kong and South Korea, a comparison with these countries may help to understand Chinese employees better. Considering China’s emerging role in the world economy, a more comprehensive understanding of values and work-related attitudes among Chinese employees seems potentially valuable. The research question is, how similar or different are the values and work-related attitudes of Chinese employees compared to the values and attitudes of employees from their neighbours: Japan, South Korea and Hong Kong. This paper contributes to the literature by providing an examination of the values and work-related attitudes of employees from China, Japan, Hong Kong and South Korea. The study investigates how a country’s institutional framework in? uences employee values at the societal level, their understanding of the meaning of work and the determinants of pay, and their attitudes towards the employing organisation and work itself. The paper begins by presenting the theoretical framework for the study, including a discussion of values, attitudes and institutions. This is followed by a description of the empirical study and ? nally the data collected from the empirical studies in these four areas is analysed and the results discussed. Theoretical framework The keywords concerning today’s economy include a changing environment and a divergent work force. There is the need for changes in organizations in emerging economies (Zhou et al. , 2006). As multiple interacting changes have led to a highly complex, confusing and unpredictable state, the focus in the change process has shifted from product innovation and technological change to behavioural aspects of change and attitudes about change (Bergquist, 1993). Organisational change has been seen as an individual-level phenomenon, because it occurs only when the majority of individuals change their behaviour or attitudes (Whelan-Berry et al. , 2003). Therefore, it is worthwhile studying the attitudes and values of individuals also in terms of the theoretical development of international management. The attitudes and values of employees Affective commitment refers to an employee identifying and being psychologically involved with the organization (Meyer and Allen, 1997), and concerns the emotional Chinese manufacturing companies 33 CMS 2,1 34 ties people have with their work (Zondag, 2001). Commitment attitudes could lead to commitment behaviour, which would in turn in? uence commitment attitudes (Reichers, 1985). Therefore, attitudes are important in an organisational context. One of the main factors determining people’s commitment to their jobs is job satisfaction (Wilcox, 1995). People who are satis? ed with their jobs usually develop high levels of commitment, whereas those who are less satis? ed are also less committed. Job satisfaction, de? ned as a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job (Locke, 1976), is considered as a combination of attitudes about various aspects or facets of the job, which form the overall job satisfaction construct (Spector, 1997). Values have a motivational characteristic (Parsons, 1951) by in? uencing and directing our choices and actions (Gini, 2004). Values have been de? ned as the principles or standards that people use, individually or collectively, to make judgements about what is important or valuable in their lives (McEwan, 2001). Values are shaped by personal beliefs and developed through study, introspection and consultation with others and a lifetime of experience (George, 2003). Many studies have shown the value differences of different nations (House et al. , 2004; Hofstede, 1980). Comparative studies of values indicate signi? cant differences in Chinese and the USA evaluations of value statements (Peppars and Yu, 2007; Ralston et al. , 2006). There are connections between cultural values and job attitudes (Kirkman and Shapiro, 2001). Connections have been found between institutional development and attitudes and values. A comparative study in 15 countries indicated higher job satisfaction and commitment to the company in established capitalist countries compared to former socialist countries (Alas and Rees, 2006). Research results in former socialist countries indicate that the way people form their attitudes may differ according to the institutional developments at the time the people started their careers (Alas and Vadi, 2006). Research results indicate that speci? c institutional environments have an impact on peoples’ value system (Alas, 2005). A longitudinal survey of values, which started in the second half of the 1990s, indicated that Estonian business students who have formed their values under a Soviet centrally planned economy underestimated social values when compared with Finnish students, who had no experience of the socialist order (Alas et al. , 2006). The same study in China indicated differences in work-related values between groups according to the time they started their careers (Alas and Sun, n. d. ). Therefore, in the current study, institutionalism is applied to explain differences in attitudes and values. Institutionalism Institutionalists stress, the importance of the institutional environment in order to understand behaviour (North, 1990). Institutions can be seen from both a structural and a social perspective. In the structural view, institutions exist as institutionalised forms of â€Å"external social constraints†. From the social perspective, institutions can be understood to be operating as behavioural de? ners, which may take the form of either â€Å"cultural accounts† or â€Å"cultural rules†. This means that institutions provide an account of how the social world works, and also embody normative principles and social values (Meyer et al. , 1994, p. 24). Individual organisations are under the technical and normative in? uence of institutionalised environments. A population’s cultural values are typically an essential element behind the ways work is organized in companies (Head and Sorensen, 2005). Many studies have described the impact of national culture on management practices and organisational behaviours, but very few have speci? cally addressed cross-cultural differences in work values among labour forces (Strong and Nicholson, 1998). As China, Japan, South Korea and Hong Kong are all in? uenced by Confucianism (Chokkar et al. , 2007), the author could assume that a similar cultural heritage will result in similar values and attitudes. At the same time, although Confucianism plays a pivotal role in guiding Chinese thinking and behaviour (Nankervis and Ngok, 2007), there have been changes in people’s values (Alas and Sun, n. d. ). Lu and Alon (2004) found a new social group growing during the new economic developments in China. Therefore, the differences in the stages of economic development and political systems should also be taken into consideration. The Chinese economy, previously a relatively closed system, is now on a reform path toward an open, market-driven system. After the war and revolution, China experienced a 30-year recovery period from 1949 to 1978. The Communist Party of China has led the People’s Republic of China under a one-party system since the country’s establishment in 1949. In 1978, an ambitious reform program was launched in China. Rural economy was de-collectivized, private and semi-private enterprises mushroomed, and the state sector steadily shrank (Zhang, 2004). Reform has been accompanied by a decentralization of economic control. The rigid monopoly of the government over foreign trade and the policy of autarky were abandoned (Foy and Maddison, 1999). In recent years, China has undergone rapid economic reform and dynamic organizational changes. The economic reforms, Deng Xiaoping started in 1978 have increasingly introduced market forces into the socialist system. Several major developments have given special momentum to those changes: China entering the WTO, opening the western regions of China, building up an information network, transforming new management systems nationwide, and encouraging innovations and entrepreneurship (Wang, 2003). Currently, economic reforms in China are involving the reform and reconstruction of its enterprises. Nearly, half of the PRC’s economy has been privatized in the past three decades under â€Å"Socialism with Chinese characteristics† and the number of state-owned enterprises declined from 238,000 to 150,000 between 1998 and the end of 2003 (Puffer et al. , 2007, p. 149). Economic ideology most likely evolves from the legal and political systems of a society (Kelley et al. , 1987). The business environment and the political environment of a society can differ and this is true in the case of China. At the same time, business ideology has been considered the primary driver of longitudinal changes in values (Ralston et al. , 1999, 2006). Japan and South Korea have had the opportunities to develop a market economy earlier than China and did not experience a centrally planned economic system. Between the early 1960s and 1997, Hong Kong and South Korea rapidly industrialized and sustained high-growth rates (Fogel, 2005). Hong Kong was a British colony for more than 100 years, in 1997 it was returned to China as a Special Administrative Region of China under the â€Å"one country, two systems† formula (Huque and Yep, 2003). Chinese manufacturing companies 35 CMS 2,1 36 This paper proposes differences in attitudes and values in China compared to Japan, South Korea and Hong Kong. The author hypothesizes, based on results in Eastern and western Europe, that the level of the satisfaction of needs in China, according to Maslow’s (1954) needs pyramid, is lower than in other countries. Therefore, Chinese people turn more attention to satisfying the lower level needs compared to respondents from the other three societies, who are more focused on satisfying higher level needs. This assumption is tested on three levels: the societal, organizational and individual level. Empirical study Methodology and sample The survey was conducted in China, Japan, South Korea and Hong Kong. In each of these societies, the survey was conducted in two plants in the electronics industry: one produces telecommunications equipment and the other electrical goods for household use. On the societal level, questions were asked about values, including the meaning of work. On the organisational level, the issue of commitment to the company was explored. Individuals were asked about job satisfaction and pay determinants. A standardised questionnaire comprising 39 items was developed by the Denki Ringo research group (Ishikawa et al. , 2006) and translated from English to the language of each of the four societies. In order to ensure the quality of this survey, the questionnaire was retranslated back to English. The questions in the survey addressed expectations toward society, commitment to organizations, job satisfaction and attitudes toward the determinants of pay. Items in each question can be seen in the Appendices. There were 2,112 respondents in the sample: 449 from China, 840 from Japan, 571 from South Korea and 252 from Hong Kong. Data from the four societies were compared ? rst according to rankings and after that by means of an ANOVA test. Society level values and attitudes In order to ? nd society level values and attitudes, people were asked about their preferred society and their attitudes toward the meaning of work. The rankings in Table I show what kind of society people prefer. The table shows two columns. Each column contains the same values, but they are ranked differently in each case. If the position of the values in the columns are further than two places apart then they are marked in italics. Such differences were found in ? ve out of eight values. In South Korea, well-established values and ethics are ranked ? rst, and in China, second, but only ? fth in Hong Kong and last in Japan. Material standards are fourth in South Korea and ? fth in China – this item has been ranked last in Hong Kong and one but last in Japan. Social equality is third in China, sixth in Hong Kong and Japan and last in South Korea. Living with peace of mind is ranked lowest in South Korea. Acquiring the results of their own work is third in Japan, fourth in Hong Kong, sixth in South Korea and last in China. According to the ANOVA test there are statistically signi? cant differences between the four societies in all eight items (Appendix 1). People from China put more emphasis on the material standard of living than the others, especially Japan and Hong Kong. At the same time, Chinese people are least interested in acquiring all the results of their own work, which is most important for people from Hong Kong. Well-established values and ethics is also most valued by the Chinese respondents and least by the Japanese respondents. Rankings of items in Table II differ signi? cantly only in seeing work as a way to serve society and concern for serving society. Hong Kong respondents ranked this item Japan Korea 1. 27 People live life by observing 1. 20 Social order is well 1. Social order is well well-established values and maintained with few criminal maintained with few criminal ethics offences offences 1. 27 People can live with peace of 1. 34 Everyone cooperates with each 2. People live life by observing mind other in solidarity well-established values and ethics 3. Social equality among people is 1. 28 People can acquire all the 1. 59 Social order is well highly developed results of their own work maintained with few criminal offences 4. People can live with peace of 1. 28 Individuals can develop their 1. 60 People are provided with a mind lives with great opportunities good material standard of living 1. 33 Everyone cooperates with each 1. 68 Individuals can develop their 5. People are provided with a other in solidarity lives with great opportunities good material standard of living 6. Individuals can develop their 1. 34 Social equality among people is 1. 88 People can acquire all the lives with great opportunities highly developed results of their own work 1. 89 People can live with peace of 7. Everyone cooperates with each 1. 37 People are provided with a mind other in solidarity good material standard of living 2. 31 Social equality among people is 8. People can acquire all the 1. 77 People live life by observing highly developed results of their own work well-established values and ethics China 1. 43 1. 79 People are provided with a good material standard of living 1. 65 1. 45 1. 54 People live life by observing well-established values and ethics 1. 59 Social equality among people is 1. 50 highly developed 1. 77 Individuals can develop their 1. 58 lives with great opportunities 1. 51 People can acquire all the results of their own work 1. 48 Everyone cooperates with each 1. 43 other in solidarity 1. 25 1. 46 Social order is well maintained with few criminal offences 1. 46 People can live with peace of 1. 33 mind Hong Kong Chinese manufacturing companies 37 Table I. Rankings of values at the societal level in four countries Table II. Rankings of factors re? ecting the meaning of work in four countries Japan 6. Work gives us status and prestige 2. 67 Work gives us status and prestige 3. 90 Work is a useful way to serve society 3. 86 Work permits you to have interesting contacts with other people 3. 22 Work provides you with an income that is needed 3. 18 Work keeps you occupied Hong Kong 3. 14 Work is a useful way to serve 3. 16 Work itself is basically society interesting and satisfying 2. 39 Work gives us status and 3. 00 Work gives us status and prestige prestige 4. 31 Work provides you with an income that is needed 3. 72 Work permits you to have interesting contacts with other people 3. 41 Work itself is basically interesting and satisfying 3. 39 Work keeps you occupied Korea 38 1. Work provides you with an 4. 25 Work provides you with an income that is needed income that is needed 2. Work is a useful way to serve 3. 92 Work permits you to have society interesting contacts with other people 3. Work itself is basically 3. 76 Work itself is basically interesting and satisfying interesting and satisfying 3. 65 Work is a useful way to serve 4. Work permits you to have society interesting contacts with other people 5. Work keeps you occupied 2. 93 Work keeps you occupied China 3. 03 3. 75 3. 97 3. 98 3. 98 3. 98 CMS 2,1 ?rst and Chinese second, at the same time, Japanese and Koreans ranked this item fourth and ? fth, respectively. According to the ANOVA test, there are statistically signi? cant differences between the four societies in all six items (Appendix 2). Work is most prestigious, facilitates contacts and keeps people occupied most in Hong Kong and least in Japan and China. The work provides people with an income in Japan and Hong Kong, but this is not so important in China. Work is most interesting in China and Hong Kong. Commitment to the company and job satisfaction Commitment to the company was highest among Chinese employees, followed by those in Hong Kong, South Korea and Japan. Job satisfaction was measured in two different ways. In the ? rst part of the questionnaire, 15 facets of job satisfaction were evaluated on a ? ve-point scale and later among questions about age and marital status, there was a single question about general satisfaction with working life. Because of the larger number of items in this question, only the differences in rankings greater than four places are marked with italics in Table III. Satisfaction with the security of employment protection was second in Japan, tenth in South Korea and eleventh in China and Hong Kong. Satisfaction with welfare provisions was third in Japan, eighth in Korea, 13th in Hong Kong and 14th in China. Hong Kong people ranked satisfaction with trust between managers and employees third and Korean people ? fth. This item was only ranked eighth in China and Japan. Satisfaction with the competence of management was fourth in Korea, seventh in Hong Kong, ninth in China and 12th in Japan. Satisfaction with training and re-training is eighth in Hong Kong, tenth in China and Japan and 14th in South Korea. Satisfaction with length of working time was second in China, ? fth in Hong Kong and ninth in Japan and Korea. The results of the ANOVA test in Appendix 3 indicate statistically signi? cant differences between the four societies in all facets of job satisfaction except promotion opportunities (F(3; 2,057) ? 1. 745, p ? 0. 156) and business information provided by management (F(3; 2,086) ? 1. 411, p ? 0. 238), but also, in general satisfaction (F(3; 2,101) ? 5. 414, p ? 0. 001) and in commitment to the company (F(3; 2,002) ? 67. 544, p ? 0. 000). The general satisfaction with work life was highest in Hong Kong; Japan was next, followed by China and South Korea. In Japan, satisfaction with security of employment protection and welfare provision is higher than in other societies. Hong Kong is the country with highest satisfaction with training and re-training. Chinese satisfaction with relationships with the boss and co-workers and equal opportunities for women and men are higher than in other countries. Attitude to the determinants of pay The opinions of workers about the determinants of pay are shown in Table IV. Because of the larger number of items in this question, only differences greater than four places are marked with italics in Table IV. The level of education was ranked ? rst by Hong Kong people, only ninth in China and 11th in Korea and 14th in Japan. Korean respondents found company performance the most important and Hong Kong respondents the third most important pay determinant, whereas Chinese-ranked company performance ? fth and Japanese, sixth. Mental load was fourth in Japan, Chinese manufacturing companies 39 Table III. Rankings of the facets of job satisfaction in four countries Japan 14. Welfare provision 15. Pay and fringe bene? ts 11. Security of employment protection 12 Business information provided by management 13. Promotion opportunities 6. Equal opportunities for women and men 7. Work load 8. Trust between managers and employees 9. Competence of management 10. Training and re-training Hong Kong 2. 70 Equal opportunities for women and men 2. 72 Working conditions 2. 89 Work load 2. 75 Trust between managers and 2. 90 Welfare provision employees 2. 81 Length of working time 3. 00 Length of working time 3. 00 Training and re-training 3. 03 Security of employment protection 3. 02 Work load 3. 07 Business information provided by management 3. 06 Competence of management 3. 11 Equal opportunities for women and men 3. 20 Business information 3. 12 Pay and fringe bene? ts provided by management 3. 43 Promotion opportunities 3. 23 Training and re-training 3. 50 Pay and fringe bene? ts 3. 35 Promotion opportunities 3. 21 Pay and fringe bene? ts 3. 22 Promotion opportunities 2. 99 3. 01 2. 92 Work load 2. 94 Equal opportunities for women and men 3. 01 Security of employment protection 3. 09 Business information provided by management 3. 11 Welfare provision 3. 29 3. 36 3. 09 3. 04 3. 04 2. 98 2. 90 2. 86 2. 86 2. 78 2. 45 2. 67 2. 87 Competence of management 2. 88 Training and re-training 2. 76 Trust between managers and 2. 79 Length of working time employees 2. 86 Working conditions 2. 79 Working conditions 2. 31 Relationship with co-workers 2. 16 Relationship with co-workers 2. 71 Relationship with the boss 2. 54 The extent to which work is interesting 2. 72 The extent to which work is 2. 64 Trust between managers and interesting employees 2. 72 Competence of management 2. 79 Relationship with the boss Korea 40 1. Relationship with co-workers 2. 03 Relationship with co-workers 2. Length of working time 2. 39 Security of employment protection 3. The extent to which work is 2. 50 Welfare provision interesting 4. Relationship with the boss 2. 51 The extent to which work is interesting 5. Working conditions 2. 63 Relationship with the boss China CMS 2,1 2. 21 Language abilities 2. 24 Age 2. 52 Level of education 3. 02 Gender 13. Language abilities 14. Age 15. Gender 2. 44 Size of family the employee supports 2. 48 Language abilities 2. 72 Age 3. 31 Gender 2. 23 2. 33 2. 57 2. 07 2. 36 Length of service 2. 17 Length of service 2. 49 Age 2. 73 Gender 2. 96 Size of family the employee supports 2. 02 2. 06 2. 19 Language abilities 2. 31 Physical load 2. 13 Length of service 2. 16 Special personal characteristics required for the job 2. 36 Level of education 2. 16 2. 00 2. 44 Mental load 1. 96 2. 07 Special personal characteristics required for the job 2. 14 Group or team performance 1. 94 Mental load 1. 83 Physical load 2. 04 Physical load 1. 85 2. 06 Achievement of tasks 1. 93 Group or team performance 1. 88 Special personal characteristics required for the job 1. 91 Group or team performance 2. 16 Size of family the employee supports 1. 84 2. 05 Responsibility on the job 1. 88 Responsibility on the job 1. 71 Unpleasant working conditions 1. 76 Company performance 11. Size of family the employee supports 12 Length of service 9. Level of education 10. Group or team performance 8. Mental load 6. Special personal characteristics required for the job 7. Physical load 1. 76 1. 88 Skills required for the job 1. 47 Mental load 4. Unpleasant working conditions 5. Company performance 1. 50 1. 63 1. 70 1. 70 Unpleasant working conditions 1. 85 Skills required for the job 1. 41 Responsibility on the job 3. Responsibility on the job Hong Kong 1. 77 Level of education 1. 79 Unpleasant working conditions 1. 85 Company performance 1. 47 Company performance 1. 63 Achievement of tasks Korea 1. 27 Achievement of tasks 1. 36 Skills required for the job Japan 1. Achievement of tasks 2. Skills required for the job China Chinese manufacturing companies 41 Table IV. Rankings of the determinants of pay in four countries CMS 2,1 42 seventh in Korea and eighth in China and only 12th in Hong Kong indicate statistically signi? cant differences between the four societies for all the determinants of pay. Japanese respondents found mental load and family size more important and company performance, unpleasant working conditions, gender and education less important than the others. Respondents from Hong Kong put most emphasis on education, length of service, age, gender, language skills and team and ? rm performance compared with the other three countries. Chinese respondents were more interested than others in considering unpleasant working conditions, achievement of tasks, skills, special personal characteristics, responsibility required and physical load. Conclusions and discussion This study contributes to the understanding of factors in? uencing values and work-related attitudes at the societal, organizational and individual level. The ? ndings of the current study generally support the authors main proposition: respondents from China put more emphasis on the satisfaction of lower level needs than respondents from Japan, South Korea and Hong Kong. At the societal level, the Chinese respondents found material standard of living (statistically and signi? cantly) more important than the other three societies. At the same time, the work is less valued as provider of income in China than in Japan and Hong Kong. This could be explained by the low wages in China. Well-established values and ethics were most valued by Chinese respondents and least by Japanese respondents. This could be explained via the ? ndings from the comparison of cultural dimensions from the Globe study on the one hand, and values and work related attitudes from the Denki Ringo research on the other hand (Alas, 2006). According to this international comparison, ethics could be taken as the means for achieving the desired society. In other words, if people are less satis? ed with societal practices, they start to put more emphasis on ethics. This is in the hope that if everyone starts to behave more ethically, life will improve for them. Attitudes toward the organization are mutually connected with individual needs. Chinese employees were least satis? ed with welfare provision and security of employment protection. Both indicators were the highest in Japan, which has the most experience in building up a market economy from among this group of societies. Chinese respondents were also more interested in considering unpleasant working conditions as a determinant of pay than the other three. In attempting to explain these results from an institutional perspective, Chinese history should be considered. The lengthy experiencing of a centrally planned economy in China has brought different developments in the economy and material standards of living compared to the other three societies in the study. According to previous studies, the countries who had experienced a socialist regime have considerable less wealth than traditional capitalist countries (Alas and Rees, 2006). Therefore, at the societal level, the respondents from China put more emphasis on their material standard of living, and on unpleasant work conditions at the organizational level than the Japanese, South Korean and Hong Kong respondents. The reason for this could stem from their dif? culties in satisfying lower-level needs according to Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy of needs: the lower level needs of Chinese respondents were not satis? ed, therefore they turned more attention to the provision of welfare and employment protection than employees in the other three countries. The indicators of general satisfaction with working life almost supported this connection with material standards of living: this was highest in Hong Kong and Japan and lower in China and South Korea. The fact that general satisfaction with working life in South Korea is low may also be explained using the different levels of welfare and GDP in Korea compared to the more economically developed Japan and Hong Kong. These differences can also be connected with transition in Chinese